Terms used in dietary articles

Lactose (milk sugar): the disaccharide consisting of glucose and galactose.

Leptin is the satiety hormone which stimulates the brain’s hunger center to suppress appetite, while ghrelin has the opposite effect. Leptin is produced by fat cells. Leptin also regulates metabolism. When on an energy restricted diet (except fasting or very low-carb diet) there is a 20% reduction in metabolism, and through Ghrelin an increase in appetite. Fat cells through leptin function to maintain their fat store, which it is why energy restricted diets don’t work long-term. Leptin level increase during the night and during fasting, and thus suppresses hunger.

Leptin resistance occurs when the cells under-respond to hunger. High leptin increase hunger and storing of fat.

Lipid: has two meaning: 1) a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others that are water insoluble and have a greasy appearance and feel to touch. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and are the chief structural components of cell membranes. 2) The term often is also used to mean “fats”, such as in journal articles describing the peroxidation of lipids, which are on polyunsaturated fats.

Lipoprotein refers to both the protein rap around a large molecular structure consisting of mainly water (blood) insoluble triglycerides and cholesterol, but also contain other molecules including the antioxidants vitamin C and E. They are created in the liver and are involved in transport and deposition of contents according to site needs, of which build of new tissue is most common. They are divided into subcategories by size and density.

Low density lipoprotein (LDL): A spherical particle consisting of 3-6 thousand particles (over 1,000 triglycerides and phospholipids, and 1,000 cholesterol molecules raped within a single apolipoprotein B-100 molecule of 4,356 amino acids along with 80 to 100 ancillary proteins. They are made in the liver for blood transport to cells in need of cholesterol and fatty acids. They also have an immune function in which toxins and reactive chemical attach to LDL—a thing KOLs and their textbooks ignore for the promotion of drug sales, but basic published research support.

Macrophage large white cells that function as scavenger in the removal of debris and also the removal of foreign invaders such as fungus and bacteria; they also promote healing from infections.

Metabolism in reference to diet, refers to the metabolic conversion of mainly either fat & carbohydrate into the energy molecule ATP by the mitochondria. Under conditions of starvation proteins also can be used as a source of ATP. In the second meaning, there are three main purposes of metabolism: the conversion of food/fuel to energy to run cellular processes, the conversion of food/fuel to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates, and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes.

Metabolic syndrome is a disorder of energy utilization and storage, diagnosed by a co-occurrence of three out of five of the following medical conditions: abdominal (central) obesity, elevated blood pressure, elevated fasting plasma glucose, high serum triglycerides, type-2 diabetes, and low high-density cholesterol (HDL) levels. Though a metabolic imbalance pharma includes non-metabolic conditions such high lipid-cholesterol and hypertension.

Micronutrients: are nutrients required by humans and other organisms throughout life in small quantities to orchestrate a range of physiological functions.^[1] For people, they include dietary trace minerals in amounts generally less than 100 milligrams/day, as opposed to macronutrients.

Mitochondria s a membrane bound organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. These structures are sometimes described as "the powerhouse of the cell" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. The number varies, for instance, red blood cells have no mitochondria, whereas liver cells can have more than 2000. Because of the reactive chemical produced in the production of ATP, they are enclosed to prevent seepage. They have their own DNA with 36 genes that are passed down by the mother. Their decline with age is responsible for the diminished capacity for physical excursion.

Modus operandi, method of action, the causal explanation involving the involved mechanism.

Monounsaturated oils: a fatty acids with one double bond in the carbon chain that is not nearly as prone to oxidation as polyunsaturated fats, but more so than saturated fats. Dietary rich sources Coconut, Palm Kernel, and Olive oils.

Morbidity is a disease state, disability, or poor health due to any cause.

Myocardial Infarction (MI): a heart attack that occurs when the blood that nourishes the heart muscle is cut off due to the leaking of unstable plaque which is often further occluded by a blood clot. The resulting ischemia event damages the heart muscle. Myocardium, the muscular substance of the heart.

Myocytes (muscle cells/fiber): are long tubular cells that develop from the myoblast to form muscles.

Neuropathy: is damage to or disease affecting nerves, which may impair sensation, movement, gland or organ function, or other aspects of health, depending on the type of nerve affected. Common causes include systemic diseases (such as diabetes or leprosy), vitamin deficiency, medication e.g., chemotherapy, traumatic injury, radiation therapy, neuroleptic drugs, polypharmacy, excessive alcohol consumption, immune system disease or viral infection.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease the accumulation of fat by hepatocytes sufficient to significantly adversely affect various liver functions. The NHANES survey 2011 found NAFLD in 30% of adult population and 75% of those obese--a lower percentages for Europe. Diagnosed by ultrasound, steatosis is suspect when any of the following are present: obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes, visceral fat, and elevated liver enzymes. The causal pathway is accumulation of fat in the liver from the conversion of fructose to fat in the liver, and stored that due to a high carb diet. Once established diet and life style changes seldom reverse the condition, while bariatric surgery and fast are often curative.

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH): is the extreme form of NAFLD and is regarded as a major cause of cirrhosis of the liver in non-alcoholics. It is a type of liver disease, characterized by inflammation of the liver with concurrent fat accumulation in liver. Over a 10-year period up to 20% of patients with NASH will develop cirrhosis of the liver, and 10% will die from related liver diseases. The process starts with insulin resistance.

Nutrients are the components in foods that an organism utilizes to survive and grow. Macronutrients are nutrients ruired in small amount: they provide the necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out.

Nucleus accumbens (NA), accumbens nucleus is a region in the basal forebrain. It has a significant role in the cognitive processing of motivation, pleasure, reward, and operant conditioning (learning). The brain center involving addiction.

Organic (USDA): a deceptive label of foods meaning little. The outsourcing of the inspection process and the failure of the USDA to do testing entails another sham regulatory process.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion and thereby increase the valance. (see redox). Confusion is created because this term is also commonly used to refer to one specific reaction, that of combining with oxygen to form a compound such as iron oxide (rust).

PhARMA, Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (pronounced /ˈfɑrmə/), founded in 1958, is a trade group representing the pharmaceutical research and biopharmaceutical companies in the United States

Paleolithic diet is a diet based on the food humans' ancient ancestors might likely have eaten, such as meat, nuts, tubers, and berries. Current and hunter-gatherer groups are used to determine the diet. Globally there is great variation. Fruits before agriculture had a much lower sucrose and fructose content. These people have a near zero rate of the Western list of non-communicable diseases (NCD). However with the introduction of the Western diet these peoples develop NCDs. Human metabolism has developed for this diet.

Pancreas an abdominal organ of the digestive and endocrine that produces several important hormones including glucagon, insulin, and pancreatic polypeptide and also digestive juices that assist in absorption of nutrients in the small intestine which help breakdown proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.

Polypeptide, chain of biological occurring molecules consisting of few than 51 amino acids, whi8ch distinguishes it from the longer chain proteins.

Polyphagia (sometimes known as hyperphagia) is a medical sign meaning excessive hunger and abnormally large intake of solids by mouth. It can be caused by disorders such as diabetes, Kleine–Levin syndrome (a malfunction in the hypothalamus), the genetic disorders Prader–Willi syndrome, and Bardet–Biedl syndrome.

Polypharmacy is the use of four or more medications by a patient, generally adults aged over 65 years where it occurs in greater than 40%, and by 21% of those who are retarded, and over 80% of those who are in assisted living facilities. It is impossible to accurately predict the side effects of a cocktail of drugs. .

Polyunsaturated fatty acids, a large class of fatty acids with 2 or more double bonds in the carbon chain of a fat molecule. Being unsaturated entails that the carbon chain is subject to oxidation which results in the polyunsaturated fatty acids becoming rancid. This poses a health risk in that some of these products of oxidation cannot be metabolized and thus like trans-fats promote atherogenesis with its assorted unhealthy consequences—see saturated fats. Principle sources are vegetable oils such as sunflower, canola, and Soy bean, all of which are GMOs..

Proteins, a large biological molecules consisting of one or more long chains of amino acids; distinguished from the shorter single chain polypeptide. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within living organisms, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another.

RAGE, the receptor for advanced glycation end-products is a 35 kD a transmembrane receptor of the immuno-globulin super family which was first characterized in 1992 by Neeper et al.^[2] It is also called "AGER". Its name comes from its ability to bind advanced glycation end-products (AGE), which include chiefly glycoproteins, the glycans of which have been modified non-enzymatically [randomly] through the Maillard reaction. See AGE above,

Resistant starch (RS): is starch and starch degradation products that escape from digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals.^[1]^[2] Resistant starch occurs naturally in foods but is also added to foods by the addition of isolated or manufactured types of resistant starch.^[3]

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive chemical species containing oxygen. Examples include peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, and singlet oxygen.^[1] Main sources are from the metabolism of glucose in the mitochondria, and form the further degredation of oxidized unsaturated oil.

Saccharide is a carbohydrate which includes sugars, starch and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Saturated fatty acids, a class of fat with a long chain of carbon all single bonds and an organic acid group.

Satiety score, see paragraph at bottom of this section

Starch is long chains of glucose units. This polysaccharide is produced mostly by green plants as an energy store and is distinguished from the glycogen form produced mainly by vertebrates and fungi. Digestion (breaking upon glucose units for metabolism) depends upon having the righr digestives enzyme.

Steatosis, in cellular pathology is the process describing the abnormal retention of lipids within a cell in vesicles that displace cytoplasm.

Sucrose (sugar, table sugar, beet sugar, cane sugar) a disaccharide consisting of the molecules glucose and fructose—distinguished from malt sugar, barley sugar, etc.

Sugar (table sugar, sucrose): 1) a sweet, crystalline disaccharide obtained from the juice of sugar can or sugar beets. 2) In chemistry a class of carbohydrates with 3 or more carbons forming a backbone which to which are attached oxygen and hydrogen. Most of these carbon chains can form ring structures with one member of the ring being oxygen. They often form disaccharides that or easily hydrolyzed enzymatically into monosaccharides that usually exist in a ring formation. 3) A generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble carbohydrate--consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen--many of which are used in food.

Superoxide dismutases (SOD) are a class of enzymes that catalyze the dismutation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. As such, they are an important antioxidant defense in nearly all cells exposed to oxygen. In mammals and most chordates, three forms of superoxide dismutase are present. SOD1 is located primarily in the cytoplasm, SOD2 in the mitochondria and SOD3 is extracellular.

Supplement (dietary), taken to provide nutrients that may otherwise not be consumed in sufficient quantities. They include foods, drugs, and other products.

ROS Reactive Oxygen species

Tobacco ethics, the principles of short-term maximization of profits which guides the decision process of corporations. The term alludes to the fact that public wheal is consistently compromised for maximization of profits.

Tobacco science, marketing science, research done to promote financial gain and is in its published scientific journal form significantly below the standards of sound science.

Trans-fats (trans-isomer) in the carbon chain of a fatty acid a double-bounded between 2-carbon atoms with one hydrogen atom on the upside of the chain and the other on the downside. If the hydrogens in the double-bonded carbon are on the same side it is a cis-isomer. Trans isomers are rare in nature, but are commercial produced in quantity through a process of partial hydrogenation of polyunsaturated fats (vegetable oils) because the trans configuration is of lower energy than the cis, and thus the preferred configuration.

Triglycerides (TG) an ester obtained from glycerol by esterification of three hydroxyl groups with fatty acids; an important energy source forming most of the fat stored by the body.

Tunica media (short media) the middle tunica (layer) of an artery or vein. In the artery it consists mostly of muscle cells and is where plaque forms and collects in response to inflammation caused by pathogens, macrophages and damaged LDL.

Type-1 diabetes (mellitus), T1D, T1DM, juvenile onset diabetes , a condition where the immune system destroys 60% or more of the insulin producing beta cell in the pancreas.

Type-2 diabetes (mellitus), T2D, T2DM, NIDDM, diabetes, adult onset diabetes: a medical condition which results from high serum glucose as a result of insulin resistance and with the subsequent overproduction of insulin by the beta cells in the pancreas. In many cases this will progress to a rather sudden reversal where insulin is under-produced, even though the beta cells of the pancreas are still functional. This condition can be reversed by a combination of alternate-day fast and low insulin diet, or bariatric surgery. The extreme low carb diet is the best way to manage T1D.

Unsaturated fat a large class of fatty acids with 2 or more double bonds in the carbon chain of a fat molecule.

Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) is a large, triglyceride-rich lipoprotein secreted by the liver that transports triglyceride to adipose tissue and muscle. The triglycerides in VLDL are removed in capillaries by the enzyme lipoprotein lipase, and the VLDL returns to the circulation as a smaller particle with a new name, intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL). Its diameter is between 30-80 nm.

Visceral fat, abdominal fat: is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs (stomach, liver, intestines, kidneys, etc. Distinguished from subcutaneous fat underneath the skin and intra-muscular fat interspersed in the skeletal muscles. An excess of visceral fat is known as central obesity, or "belly fat", Excess visceral fat is also linked to type 2 diabetes,^[9] insulin resistance,^[10] inflammatory diseases,^[11] and other obesity-related diseases.

Western Diet, Western lifestyle: a dietary pattern in developed countries, and increasingly in developing countries. It is characterized by high intakes of processed foods with their added sugars, refined grains, high fructose drinks, low saturated fats, and the frequent eating at fast food restaurants. Fat is typically reduced to about 30% of calories which is replaced by carbohydrates. The Western diet/lifestyle is responsible for the epidemic increase in non-communicable diseases, especially T2D, NAFLD, MeS, atherosclerosis, CVD, age related degenerative diseases, and their deadly consequences.

Conditions associated with the western diet (CAWD) the most significant are neuro-degenerative diseases, cancer, atherosclerosis and its associated heart attacks, strokes (hypertension is a sign, not a condition), insulin resistance which is causal for type-2 diabetes, weight gain, obesity, osteoporosis, arthritis (both types), and macular degeneration. But for cancer these conditions are extremely rare among aboriginal peoples on their traditional diet.

Note on Wikipedia: pharma through their KOLs has written and rewritten the contents to support their goals.

Insulin Index is a measure used to quantify the typical insulin response to various foods. The index is similar to the Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load, but rather than relying on blood glucose levels, the Insulin Index is based upon blood insulin levels. This measure can be more useful than either the Glycemic Index or the Glycemic Load because certain foods (e.g., lean meats and proteins) cause an insulin response despite there being no carbohydrates present, and some foods cause a disproportionate insulin response relative to their carbohydrate load. Others such, for example fructose causes only 1/5^th the response of glucose.

.Glycemic index (GI): “A measure of the blood-glucose level over 2 hour after 12 hours of fasting to a certain quantity of food, usually 50 grams based on the measurement of 10 subjects. This is an imperfect measurement because 1) a sources of carbohydrates are eaten with sauces, milk, cheese, meats etc. such as cereals, spaghetti, and breads which slow absorption; 2) meats, e.g. though they have little glucose but trigger insulin response, and 3) fructose and galactose are not glucose though they provide energy and cause glycation at a higher rate than glucose.

Glycemic load (GL): of food is a number that estimates how much the food will raise a person's blood glucose level after eating one portion. One unit of glycemic load approximates the effect of consuming one gram of glucose. Glycemic load accounts for how much carbohydrate is in the food and how much each gram of carbohydrate in the food raises blood glucose levels. Glycemic load is based on the glycemic index (GI), and is defined as the fraction of available carbohydrate in the food times the food's GI.

Satiety score (value, index) is based upon 240-calorie portions of 38 different foods fed volunteers. A table was devised on how much after eating one of those foods, the volunteers ate at a buffet 2 hours later. White bread is a baseline with a rating of 100.

What you need to take with you: That fructose is very reactive and it is only metabolized in the liver. There it is converted into fat and too much fructose through fat accumulation damages liver cells. Fructose in vivo (body) is 15 times more reactive than glucose; thus fructose damages cells throughout the body. This reaction in the liver contributes to insulin resistance. Fructose starts the path to insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, which afflicts over 1/3^rd of adults. Sugars that contain fructose are the worse of carbs. Insulin is secreted by the pancreas in response to increased glucose. The insulin causes muscles cells to absorb glucose for metabolism, and causes fat cells to store its fat and absorb serum fat. Insulin resistance occurs when the fat and muscle cells becoming tolerant to insulin, and thus the pancreas secrets more insulin to lower plasma glucose. Low serum insulin causes fat cells to release fat and muscle cells to metabolize the fat. Therefore, eat a very low insulin (carb) diet for a year to let your liver heal, end insulin resistance, and to reset your body’s weight-control system to your new lower weight. Physical exertion, and small low carb meals (thus high in fats, fiber, protein) keeps your insulin low. Because polyunsaturated fats become rancid in your body, saturated fats are the best source of energy, second best are monounsaturated fats.